Human Resource Development and Organisational Perfomance

EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFOMANCE Table of Contents INTRODUCTION 1 ORGANISATIONS AND HRD 1 HRD AND MOTIVATION 1 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 2 ORGANISATIONAL LEARNING 2 OTHER EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES 3 Coaching and Mentoring 3 Talent management Career Development 4 Net Gen’ers: Learning Gets Social 5 Knowledge management 5 CONCLUSION 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY II HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION It is often debated and generally accepted that human resource development (HRD) activities are important in an organisation. But the question lies within to what extent and how much does it contribute. The reason may lie in†¦show more content†¦In other words organisations must transform into learning environments, where continuous learning is experienced, thus transforming into a Learning Organisation. Learning organisation thrives for continuous improvement of its capacities in order to make the organisation ready to face the future. For example learning and development process at Corus; a Tata Steel company and Europe s second largest steel producer with annual revenues of around  £12 billion, employing around 40,000 people worldwide, is moderated by structuring the learning process within their organisation through setting up a Corus Academy. The Corus Academy was based on sharing best practices and maximizing common approaches. Its main objective focus on Constant Improvement was achieved through the sharing of ideas across the entire company, where both individual and organisational learning occurred simultaneously becoming a learning organisation itself. (TheTimes100, 2009). Other Employee Development Approaches Development is the growth or realization of a person’s ability and potential through the provision of learning and training experiences (Armstrong, 2006). Different Organisations adopts different activities in order to enhance their learning capabilities. According to Armstrong (2006), a balanced approach is required, making use of the various forms of learning and development to produce aShow MoreRelatedPerformance Appraisals: To Go Or Not To Go?. Introduction.1723 Words   |  7 PagesPerformance Appraisals: To Go or Not to Go? Introduction Performance appraisals (PA) have long been considered fundamental to the organisational effectiveness of human resources (Yee Chen, 2009). However, a macro shift towards a knowledge-based economy, the advancement of technology, and generational workforce changes, have prompted an evolution of the traditional PA practise. The purpose of this literature review is to highlight the reasons why traditional PA practices are inadequate and unfulfillingRead MoreVoltas Limited-Organisational Strategy, Hr Plan, Hr Strategy, Vision, Mission and Values1836 Words   |  8 Pagesout to ascertain internal strength,weaknesses, critical sucess factors, measurement and analysis of business results etc.Market assessment also includes stake holders analysis,competitors analysis,analysing oportunities and threats.  · Strategy development: Strategy direction setting- identify potential new geographies, new vertical,adjacent business linesThis includes the strategic challenges,objectives andRead MoreAdobe : Building Momentum By Abandoning Annual Performance Reviews For Check Ins1830 Words   |  8 Pagesand adapt extraordinary substance anyplace, on any stage or device they have. (Morris, 2009) BODY: Adobe is an international company. During the year March 2012 that was under the Senior Vice President of People Resources Donna Morris. At that time, she focus on the Adobe’s performance management system around performance review that it was generating favourable outcomes and positive feedbacks from the employee base. After that they abolished the annual performanceRead MoreEssay on Strategic Management of Human Resources2647 Words   |  11 Pagesï » ¿ Strategic Management of Human Resources Name: Michael Lenz Address: Rosenstraße 22 91489 Wilhelmsdorf Germany Email Address: lenz-michi@web.de Telephone: 09104/2078 Module Name: HRM 325: Strategic Management of Human Resources Submission Date: 06.01.2015 Module Leader: Lynne Powell Student-ID: 139184754 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3 2. Question 1: 3 2.1 Strategic Need: Time 3 2.2 Strategic Need: Quality 4Read MoreReflection Of The Task Conducted By Me As A Group Member During Completion Of My Coursework3562 Words   |  15 Pagesidentify strategies of self-development as well as motivate myself to become a better person in totality. Communication and social skill along with strategic management of situation are essential component of management but it is required for own existence as well. The social and cognitive learning pattern is crucial for human existence. The continuous learning process and development of the human instigates survival as well as management. The management and organisational practices are replica of theRead MoreMarket Analysis of New Furniture Business Plan4711 Words   |  19 Pages12 2. Multi skilled 12 7. Benchmarking 12 1. Measuring Perfomance 12-13 2. Certification 13 3. Standard Service 13 8. Profitability 13 9. Productivity and Profit ability planning 14 1. Productivity 14 10. Staffing Issues and Total Quality Management Issues 15 1. Human Resource Issues 15-16 11. Competitive Priorities 16-18 12. SwotRead MoreCloud Computing for Higher Education: a Roadmap3563 Words   |  15 Pagesthat using technology effectively in higher education is essential to providing high quality education and preparing students for the challenges of the 21st century. Although the new technologies have the potential to play an important role in the development and emergence of education system, where control can shift from the teacher to an increasingly more autonomous learner, and to rescue the HE from this appalling situation, the change is very slow or not forthcoming at all for various reasons. ItRead MoreBalanced Scorcard5428 Words   |  22 Pagesmethods on the internal audit activity through qualitative and quantitative indicators of performance assurance. Balanced Scorecard, the management method and tool, referred to the Dashboard, contributes to the internal audit performance through resource planning, setting objectives and scope of the audit, communication and approval, following the recommendations, deferring to the code of ethics and how to achieve the objectives. The listed indicators, are components of the proposed management methodsRead MoreCorporate Identity10953 Words   |  44 PagesCollaboration: An Empirical Investigation 04/07 – Zahid Hussain Peter Prowse Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) as Means of Fulfilling Job Roles More Professionally for Human Resource (HR) Managers 04/06 – Damian Ward Measuring the Value of Differentiation In The UK Monthly Savings Market 04/05 – Stephanie Hussels Damian Ward Cost Efficiency and Total Factor Productivity in the European Life Insurance Industry: The Development of the German Life Insurance Industry Over the Years 1991-2002 04/04Read MoreAN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN THE MINING SECTOR IN NIGERIA15805 Words   |  64 Pageselement in their strategy for economic development (Ayanwale, 2007). Mergers and acquisitions including pri vate- to-private transactions as well as acquisitions through privatization, which increased significantly in developing countries became an increasingly important vehicle for FDI (Kyaw, 2003). This has led to many countries improving their business climate to attract more FDI. In fact, one of the pillars for launching the new partnership for Africa’s development (NEPAD) was to accelerate FDI inflows

Employees Should Not Contact A Borrower More Than Three...

1.1 Frequency of contact Zagga staff should not contact a borrower more than three times per week or 10 times per month. [Note to Zagga: This should remain at 10 time per month. Reason: ACCC and ASIC’s ‘Debt collection guideline: for collectors and creditors’ (Feb 2016) provides ‘†¦ We recommend that you do not contact a debtor more than three times per week, or 10 times per month at most †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. We recommend you follow the regulators’ guidelines.] This includes answered calls (including hang ups), letters, emails, voicemails or SMS’s. Zagga staff should also limit personal visits to less than one per week. Once contact has been made with the borrower, they should leave a reasonable interval before next contacting the borrower. Zagga staff should not contact the borrower after the limit has been reached, unless the borrower asks for the contact or unless there is some other legitimate reason for making further contact (for example, if we are in the process of negotiating an agreement with a willing borrower). Cases where Zagga does contact the borrower outside of these limits should be noted in Zagga’s Loan Management System outlining the reasons why (eg. borrower request). There are financial penalties for breaching this guideline. A borrower is entitled to respect and courtesy. Zagga should not, even if the borrower behaves inappropriately: (a) use abusive, offensive, obscene or discriminatory language in dealing with a borrower; (b) make disrespectful remarks about a borrowerShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Tv Commercial Blitz For Internet Based Payday Loan Broker2696 Words   |  11 PagesI ll admit, there was a time I found Montel Williams quite likeable. He came across as a regular guy, just like everybody else -- he d get tears in his eyes when he had sympathetic guests on his show; he promoted social programs, like the Boys And Girls Club. As time went on, he got a little sideways. Nothing, however, is a more egregious abuse of public trust/his fan base, than his latest TV commercial blitz for internet-based payday loan broker - MoneyMutual. There he is, smilingly promotingRead MoreCauses of Bank Failure6382 Words   |  26 PagesWHY BANK FAILS Introduction Banks are the safest place to keep your cash. Nevertheless, bank failures happen from time to time. Here s a look at what causes bank failures and what you can do about them. The main thing to know in a bank failure is that your money is probably safe. If your money is FDIC insured, you probably don’t need to panic. Bank Officers’ Fraud Let us have an example from USA Former TBW CEO Pleads Guilty in $1.5 Billion Bank Fraud Scheme WASHINGTON—Paul Allen, theRead MoreHr Practices in Nestle Bangladesh Ltd.17314 Words   |  70 Pagesof Mr. Junaid Khan, Business Faculty, North South University and organizational supervision of Mr. Md. Minhazur Rahman, Assistant Vice President, Credit Division. This internship program gives me the opportunity to come into close contact with the credit division employees of SEBL and how the organization implements all the processes. As credit division is the heart of any bank so I have got the precedence to prepare my report on this division. To make my report informative and effective I was tryingRead MoreCold Stone Creamery2046 Words   |  9 Pagescan operate in more U.S. locations. The advantage of a Parent business franchising its operations is they don’t need to have significant capital on hand because if they franchise 100 stores then cost of building them would be paid by the franchisee not the parent company. Another plus is that they are not as involved in the day to day operation as they would be if the store was directly owned by the parent company; this allows the parent company to focus their resources and time more effectivelyRead MoreHr Practices in Nestle Bangladesh Ltd.17327 Words   |  70 Pagesof Mr. Junaid Khan, Business Faculty, North South University and organizational supervision of Mr. Md. Minhazur Rahman, Assistant Vice President, Credit Division. This internship program gives me the opportunity to come into close contact with the credit division employees of SEBL and how the organization implements all the processes. As credit division is the heart of any bank so I have got the precedence to prepare my report on this division. To make my report informative and effective I was tryingRead MoreInternship Report on City Bank Limited18288 Words   |  74 Pageseight (8) semesters of 6 months each. After the completion of 8th semester consisting of theoretical exposure, the students are sent to different organization to obtain some practical exposure in different sectors which would help them in taking up more professional courses in M.BA. As a student of B.B.A, I have assigned to B.B. Avenue branch, The City Bank Ltd. for my internship. As MY program director directed us to present the report in different way that will be based on the personal observationsRead MoreBalanced Scorecard Essay3098 Words   |  13 Pageswidespread deregulation of industry, and an abundance of accessible capital. Began to breakthrough on information technology perspective have changed the capacity to manage business independent through the traditional system restriction of space or time. From past to now, traditional performance measure system focus on ‘Financial Performance’ and usually ignore the other aspects of performance and evaluation like Financial; Customer; Internal Business Processes and Learning and Growth. The weaknessRead MoreCommercial Bank Project13831 Words   |  56 PagesExecutive Summary This report is about bank, history and functions contains what I have learned in my six week internship at MCB (Ltd). It starts with its success story and brief introduction of management. This report contains detail about business practices in MCB, its current financial statement, position, working of its different departments in MCB Gojra Branch and about of how a letter of credit is used in bank. The purpose of exercise was to learn while working in practical field, especiallyRead MoreEssay about Generally Accepted Accounting Principles and Balance Sheet19515 Words   |  79 PagesLounge consists of the following. Carry, the owner believed that people would come to hear a band play on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evening. During the remainder of the week, she believed her customers would watch sporting events on several television sets located throughout the lounge. Carry employed two bartenders, three servers, two assistant servers, two cooks, one dishwasher and a clean-up per son. She had a bar, 15 barstools, 4 tables, 40 chairs, 4 television sets, and one satellite dishRead MoreIce Delights Case Essay4529 Words   |  19 Pagesoperating was not defined, and the list of targeted industries was rather spread. The three knew, however, the size of the company they were looking for (was defined sales volume) as well as the level of commitment they were prepared to give (minimum). Such approach of determining the type and area of business has long proved to be out of date. Considering that none of the three had ever owned the business, they should first get a clear picture of what is really like to run a business. Some ideas could

The Valley Essay Example For Students

The Valley Essay 1. There are several instances in â€Å"The Valley† that show that customs and traditions pass on through different generations. The first example takes place with the first sketch, Jehu. Where Hinojosa describes how a girl’s hand in marriage is traditionally asked for. Hinojosa weaves in two different generation performing the same tradition, Roque Malacara, asking for Tere, and Braulio Tapia taking in retro-spect about his own experience, when he too had to face his father-in-law and ask for his wives hand in marriage. Another example of traditions is the giving of nicknames, or apodos. From making the name easier, to naming them for a characteristic, nicknaming is seen through out the different generations, families, and cities. Like Vicky for Eduviges, Panchita for Francisca, Chedes for Mercedes, and Rafa for Rafael. Nicknames were also give for other reasons like physical or personality characteristics, such as Hoarsey because his voice was that, or Mion because he happen to pee in his pants. Yet another example of traditions and customs through out different generations, is the oral tradition. Jehu and Rafa both narrate part of their story, the same way the viejiots did about the Revolution. The same way their children with talk about their own experience. The oral tradition is one of the ways customs or traditions are kept alive through out the years. Creative Writing

Contexts For Communication Free Sampless †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Contexts For Communication. Answer: Among three contexts for communication, the first one is intrapersonal communication, which involves only one person. It is often referred to as self-talk. We use language for reflecting on our personal experiences and even talking ourselves through situations. Intrapersonal experience can be both positive and negative and influence the way we observe and respond to situations and communicate with others. The second major context is interpersonal communication, which generally involves two people. This type of communication ranges from being intimate to very personal, and then to formal and then impersonal. The third communication context is group communication, which is a dynamic process in which a small number of people get themselves involved in the conversation. It is usually described as having an involvement of around three to six people. The bigger the conversation group the more probability there is of breaking it down into smaller groups. Each of these contexts have some kin d of influence on the communication process. These contexts at some point can overlap, which can create an even more dynamic process. Communication in these contexts over the lifetime would help in its application with respect to the experience gained from each of these contexts. Organizations mostly see different forms of group communication inside them. Organizations generally have large groups in which a form of communication exists. While communicating in a diverse form of group, especially in a marketing department, the first and most important things to consider are age, gender, education and location for learning more about the involved people and their generic preferences and even dislikes. In a department as big as marketing, several smaller groups are found, divided according to may be specific areas of education. This knowledge about the group can be utilized for increasing the efficiency of a business communicator. The key steps involved in having an effective two-way communication process are: Development of a notion that the sender wishes to convey Encoding the idea to be communicated into proper words, signs or charts that would assist the transmission process. In this step, it is decided by the sender what method of transmission would be used, as along with that the words and signs also needs to be prearranged for transmission. The third step involves the act of transmission of the message with the help of the chosen method. Senders even attempt at keeping their communication channel free of barriers for making sure the conveyed messages actually get the chance to reach the receivers. The fourth step makes it possible for another person to obtain the message. In this stage, the initiative is transported to the receiver. The message gets lost if there is no detected function from the receivers side. This step involves the decoding of the message for it to become easier to understand. It is obvious that the sender would want the receiver to understand the conveyed message in the correct way in which it was meant to. The comprehension situation happens only in the mind of the receiver. Communication might make people listen, but there is no way that others can understand it if not meant to. It completely depends on the receiver to choose to understand or not. Several employers oversee this fact when they give orders. They make the mistake that telling someone anything would be enough, which is not the case unless there is comprehension. The final step in the two-way communication process is the usage of the communication by the receiver. The receiver might store it, discard it or perform the task as instructed or do something else. Some effective management communication characteristics are as follows: Segmented for meeting the requirements and needs of specific audiences. Specific for meeting the requirements and needs of specific audiences. Accurate with regards to the conveyed content and also to the simple and basic things like spelling, punctuation and grammar. Punctual to face the challenge of the current technology driven business environment and communicate with the employees on a timely basis. Frequent for making sure all employees have received it and information has been passed on. Multi-channel business communication for making sure all employees, irrespective of the settings, receives it. Face-to-face communication as an effective method can be used whenever applicable and possible. Two-way communication offers the benefit of sharing feedback, thoughts and opinions to both the employers and all employees. Examples of electronic communication method: Email is a method at first proposed to mimic physical mail. Messages are passed on from one specific convey to no less than one specific areas. Messages are basically text however may join file attachments of various sorts including pictures and short movies. Not at all like texts, emails are generally not expected that would be examined right away upon receipt. Email is ideally suited for since a long time back, included talks between two people or among little social affairs of people. Text messaging makes use of cellular airwaves and protocols to pass on textual messages beginning with one cellular phone then onto the following or from one phone to a social affair of various phones. Text messaging is typically proposed as close minute correspondence and could be speedier than a phone bring in light of the way that the sender does not have to wait for the recipient to answer before passing on a message. Video chatting is coordinated over Internet protocols that stream pictures starting with one contraption then onto the following. Video chats give a briskness to a discourse. Since a man's tone is routinely less requesting to examine when you can see his face, associations as often as possible use videoconferencing to help in virtual social occasions. Examples of non-electronic communication method: Face-to-Face is the most gainful sort of correspondence between anyone. It empowers the two social events to express what might they want to state and responding to each other. The target gathering of spectators is basically wide. Memorandum is used for inside correspondence between the workplaces inside an affiliation. The target group can be the agents of the affiliation. The invoice records the measure of everything, the costs, service delineation, and a contact address for portion. It is a definitive record which can be used as verification of an obtained commitment. The target gatherings of spectators are generally the buyer of the thing and those with remarkable pay. Effective listening techniques Eliminate (or reduce) preoccupations: At work, this could mean closing your office gateway, slaughtering your cell phone or closing your laptop. Keep an open position: Face the speaker particularly and uncross your arms and legs. Maintain eye to eye association: This consoles the speaker that you are revolved around what they are expressing and energizes you read their sentiments. Paraphrase: When the speaker passes on something of particular noteworthiness, reiterate in your own particular words what you heard them say. Clarify: From time to time, make request about what the speaker is expressing in a strong and empathic way. Analytics and data gives each one of us sorts of bits of learning into what our customers require from our business. Customer feedback energizes us fathom the WHY behind what people are doing. Why are people utilizing one component three times as frequently as another? Why does the dominant part of your clienteles quit making accounts on the last walk? Or, of course what influences clienteles to use your product less as regularly as could be allowed (and over the long haul stop completely)? When we facilitate customer feedback to what we're finding in our analytics, we get a much richer photograph of what's occurring. Here are the 5 most perfect ways to deal with get unsurprising (and dumbfounding) feedback from your clienteles: Surveys Feedback boxes Put out straight User activity Usability Tests Barriers to communication within a workplace The usage of slang. Over-bewildered, new and also exact terms. Emotional barriers and taboos. A group of individuals may believe that its problematic to show their emotions and a couple of subjects might be unconditionally 'untouchable's or unfathomable. Lack of thought, interest, preoccupations, or insignificance to the authority. Differences in wisdom and point of view. Physical ineptitudes, for instance, hearing issues or talking concerns. Physical barriers to non-verbal communique. Not possessing the skill to see the non-verbal signs, movements, position and general body language can make communique less effective. Language contrasts and the problem in seeing new accents. Verbal communication is that form of oral communication in which the message gets transferred with the help of spoken words. The sender expresses his or her feelings, ideas and opinions in different forms of conversations, presentations and speeches. The efficiency of these kind of verbal communication lies in the tone of the speaker, the body language, clarity of speech, volume and quality of words that are used in conversing. In case of this communication, feedback is received immediately as there happens concurrent broadcast and receipt of the message between the sender and the receiver. Nonverbal communication is the method of transferring meaning of any message without the use of any words, nether spoken nor written. Conversely, any form of communication that is made between two or more individuals with the help of facial expressions, body language, body movements, postures and gestures are considered as nonverbal communication. This form of communication assists in establishing and maintaining the interpersonal relationships, at the time when verbal are only of use while communicating about external events. Nonverbals are used by people for expressing emotions and interpersonal attitudes, bring forward ones personality and conducting rituals like greetings. Nonverbal communication regulates the flow of communication. Legislation, organizational policies and procedures that apply to communicating with people: Human Rights Legislation Freedom of Information Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 PACE Codes of Practice National Intelligence Model Data Protection Act.

Human Resource Management Term Paper free essay sample

The Taft –Harley Act was enacted in 1947, sponsored by Senator Robert Taft and Representative Fred Hartley; known as the slave-labored bill due to its conflict with democratic principles. This act gave employers the freedom to bargain and negotiate their rights while maintaining order and production. As a result of these acts and culture there is a distinct deference in how managers and employees view unions. (4) As the desire for fair treatment and equal treatment become the priority, the members of West University are not immune to the politics. Of the many factors that forced the Resident assistants (RA’s) to seek protection under Wagner Act, job security was at the forefront. As high turnover in RA’s continued many members were faced with acts of discrimination and unfair punitive actions. The concerns came when RA’s were being fired for doing the same acts that residence i. e. (area directors, resident directors) was only being counseled for. We will write a custom essay sample on Human Resource Management Term Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This issue struck me as favoritism towards Directors, which in many cases will cause animosity among members. I feel the RA’s have a legitimate grievance against the system in-place. History has shown that when subordinates are subjected to policies that differentiate from management, the work place can become a hostile environment. True, ranking and seniority has its privileges; but when acts are subject to termination then a system of due process and policy uniformity should be in place. In this case a need for a union is needed to speak and protect the rights of all that are affected. (5) Coupled with change and growth, an air of resistance will arise giving those whom oppose an idea fuel to debate whether a union is needed. In the implementation process of petitioning for union, senior RA’s and Community Development Assistance (CDA) gave testimony that only 12 out of 600 RA’s were fired over a two-year period. These numbers were immensely low compared to other organizations. The members were justified in their opposition towards union representation. (5a). There has been a great deal of debate to whether unions worsen or improve labor relations. One the on hand union employees have a workload limits that they abide by as well as unionized strikes which can completely shut down an organization. But on the other hand unions can reduce turnover by allowing employee-employers relationship to grow by being an outlet for both sides. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart Wright, 2004) The benefit of a strong union in place allows members to resolve grievances, bargain wages and benefits, and organize campaigns that attract new talent from certain companies or industries. The union will also encourage members to join by highlighting the benefits of having a major voice during contract negations. 6) The union laws in comparison to state and public employees with rules regarding National Labor Relations Association (NLRA) recognition for private sector employees. Although NLRA sets standards that govern the labor relations between many employers and employees, the federal governments ability to regulate labor and management relations is then limited by the commerce clause of the U. S. Constitution. This means that congress can only declare the rights of employees and employers to regulate labor and management relations in situations when the employer’s organization effects interstate commerce therefore is subject to NLRA rulings. 7) The Labor Relations Commission (LRC) determined that the RA’s were entitled to fair assembly and the right to engage in collective bargaining base on the federal law given under the NLRA. Which states that local and state governments cannot regulate activity that are protected by or prohibited under the NLRA. Base on the fact that these regulations are preempted by the federal regulation of the same activities. Moreover state and local governments cannot regulate certain area of labor relations that are not regulated by the NLRA because Congress’s decisions do not regulate. Furthermore, the NLRA prohibits employers and employees from engaging in certain â€Å"unfair† labor practices, the violations of which are grounds for legal action. In conclusion state and federal labor laws are set in-place too not only protect the rights of employee’s but bridge communication gaps with employers. The simple act of knowing what yours rights are as an organizational member will foster peaceful relationships at all level.

Derivation Principle of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria The WritePass Journal

Derivation Principle of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria 1. CHAPTER ONE Derivation Principle of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria 1. CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION2. CHAPTER TWO2.1.   INTRODUCTION2.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brief History About the Principle of Derivation in Nigeria2.3. What is Expected3. CHAPTER THREE3.1.   Current Percentage Derivation3.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Problems and Dissatisfaction with the Current System4. CHAPTER FOUR4.1.   Advantages and Challenges4.2.   Advantages4.2.1.  Ã‚   Economic Diversification4.2.2.  Ã‚   Human Capacity Development4.2.3.  Ã‚   Investment and Job Creation4.2.4.  Ã‚   Proper Development4.2.5.   Reduction of Hostility4.3.   Challenges4.3.1. Political and Capacity Problems4.3.2.  Ã‚   High Dependence on Oil Proceeds  Ã‚      4.3.3.  Ã‚   Legal Regimes4.3.4.    The Game with Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria5. CHAPTER FIVE5.1.   CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONSBIBLIOGRAPHYRelated 1. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Revenue allocation in Nigeria has been one of the most intractable and controversial issues. Particularly, the `principle of derivation’ has been highly contentious in the country’s fiscal federalism since oil discovery in 1958. The derivation principle seeks to allocate natural resource (say oil and gas) revenues accruable to the federation’s account[1] on the basis that is perceived to be equitable, given particular consideration to the resource-producing states and regions. Since the introduction of the principle by the then colonial administration, the formula underlying it has undergone numerous retrogressive alterations, following a pattern that has concentrated revenues with the central (federal) government. The percentage revenue due to producing states has declined from the initial 50% share to 1% in the 1990’s, and subsequently was increased again to a currently 13% share which does not reflect full offshore derived revenues. This has been considered unfair and unacceptable by the producing states especially Akwa-Ibom and Ondo states whose oil is virtually 100% offshore, which technically limits their benefits from the principle of derivation. This has resulted to the continuously seen agitations by these states for equitable share of her God given natural endowment for its effective development. The equitability proposed by the derivation principle in its original sense is of great importance because it is an instrument that can promote diversification of revenue generation streams for the country and support economic development as well as reduce the hostility in the Niger Delta and any other resource rich region in the future. States and regions with natural resource endowments other than oil and gas will now be compelled to develop these natural resource(s) and hence, benefit from the principle. Unfortunately, the principle has been highly compromised by various political and ethnocentric factors, leaving the producing states (minority) with very low percentage derivation. This paper seeks to explore this interesting subject as it analysis the derivation principle with respect to the actual expectations from it, and then present the advantages and challenges. . Chapter two defines and explains the derivation principle and the expectations that are associated with it; Chapter three presents the problems and dissatisfaction of the current derivation percentage; Chapter four presents the advantages and challenges (including the Peruvian example) of the actual principle, and Chapter five concludes. 2. CHAPTER TWO 2.1.   INTRODUCTION The principle of derivation is a component of fiscal federalism and ensures that a region or state retains a certain percentage from oil tax revenues derived from the exploitation and extraction of natural resources (like oil and gas) in its territory. This revenue is calculated based on the direct contributions from a natural resource state. As it was originally practiced, after deduction of the percentage derivation, the remainder is sent to the federation’s account for onward sharing among all states. Unfortunately, today the case is different. 2.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brief History About the Principle of Derivation in Nigeria The principle was first open to discussion in 1946 by the Phillipson commission who regarded it as a way of making regions with natural resources benefit from their God given endowment based on contribution to the central revenue pot (Adebayo, 1988). The principle of derivation became the major basis of revenue allocation between 1954 and 1957 due to the dominance of Nigerian’s export market by the three main ethnic groups[2] especially with cocoa from the West (Anugwom, 2001). From the period of oil discovery in 1958, the percentage derivation due for mineral producing states began to decline. This trend called for concern when recommendations made by the Binns commission of 1964 rejected the principle as part of the revenue allocation formula. When the military took over power in 1966, it set up an interim committee (Dina committee) that again recommended the derivation principle due to its relevance. The committee argued that the rent from the onshore oil exploration be fully given to the state from which the extraction was made, while 10% of the royalties be shared on derivation (Ekpo, 2004). However, the military government rejected the committee’s recommendations and then enacted Decree 13 of 1970, which adopted a revenue allocation formula on the basis of 50% on equality of states and 50% on population, retaining derivation only on onshore exploration. This favoured the non-oil producing states (majority) than the producing minority. By this t ime oil contributed about 70% of the total revenue accruing to the federation’s account. The principle has continued to undergo retrogressive changes as different administrations took over power. 2.3. What is Expected Considering the evolution of the principle of derivation and the rationale behind its applicability prior to the discovery of oil in Nigeria, it is expected in a fair sense, and in the absence of true federalism in Nigeria that the principle bequeathed to us by the founding fathers be maintained. Different bodies and groups have continued to call for the original 50% derivation used in the era when groundnut from the North and cocoa from the West dominated the country’s export market. For Example, The Kaiama declaration[3] of 1998 lamented the declining trend of the percentage derivation since the discovery of oil in the Niger Delta, and called for a reverse of the principle. This is what the oil rich Niger Delta region continues to ask for, since federalism in Nigeria has become a politically manipulated practice by the power dominant majority, creating a serious barrier to the resource control agitators. The expected percentage derivation should be able to reflect positively on the citizenry under normal circumstances (checks and balances). 3. CHAPTER THREE 3.1.   Current Percentage Derivation Fiscal federalism in Nigeria is a system that is practically shallow compared to the actuality of the system. When juxtaposed with practices in some federal states like Canada, Australia, USA etc, it can be rightly said that the Nigerian Practice is far from rigorous. In the above mentioned states, constituent tiers of government have exclusive (full) control over natural resources in their respective territories, but pay necessary taxes to their central (federal) governments. However, Nigeria has adopted a system many now refer to as fiscal centralism (where revenue allocation and fiscal policies are left to the central government) and not the fiscal federalism (decentralised and devolved revenue allocation and fiscal policies) it so claims to practice. Despite Nigeria’s developing state, it would have been possible to maintain the expected principle, especially now that the local work force has improved. However, political sentiments have been applied in administering the percentage derivation due to natural resource producing states. This practice has indeed fall short of its expectation due to this political manoeuvring of reaping revenues to the central government; where the ethnic majority and non-oil producing states have higher control of power, and in return providing the minority and oil rich states with a token of compensation for playing host to the central government’s joint ventures with oil companies. This has become possible b ecause the 1976 constitution vest all mineral rights exclusively to the control of the federal government. The application of the principle since the country’s independence has failed to encourage and attract the development of other abundant natural resources other than oil and natural gas, as percentage derivation due to mineral producing states continue to decline. Currently, it is set at 13%, which is still insignificant, unfair and unacceptable to the agitators of resource control (Niger Delta). Although, there is an increase compared to the immediate past 1% derivation. 3.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Problems and Dissatisfaction with the Current System A vital problem with the present percentage derivation is the lack of sound technical basis or traceable mathematical derivation formula. Rather, it is a politically imposed type of compromise between ethnocentric parties. For Example, the current 13% derivation is a mean agreed value of a political negotiation in a constitutional conference held in 1995 between propositions by dominant 8% and opposing 18% parties (Ikpatt and Ibanga, 2003). Another problem with the current percentage derivation is a constitutional one, and can be traced back to the Supreme Court ruling in 2002, where the federal government filed a suit against the littoral states at the Court requesting a resolution of the seaward margin of a littoral state within the federal republic of Nigeria for the purpose of calculating the amount of revenue accruing to the federal account directly from any natural resource obtained from that state in pursuant to Section 162(2)[4] of the 1999 constitution of the Federal republic of Nigeria. In its ruling, the apex court did sustain the plaintiff’s submission, declaring that for the purpose of calculating revenue accruing to the federal account directly from any natural resource obtained from a littoral state pursuant to section 162(2) of the 1999 constitution, the seaward margin will be the low-water mark of the land surface thereof or in specific cases (like in Cross River State) with archipelago of Island s, the seaward margin will be that of the inland waters within the state. This judgement created a total dissatisfaction to the littoral states of the Niger Delta region especially Akwa-Ibom and Ondo states whose oil resources are virtually 100% offshore (probably beyond the low-water margin and inland waters within the state), thereby tactically sidelining them from offshore derivation benefits accruable to the federation’s account. However, a Bill abolishing the offshore/onshore dichotomy ruling of the Supreme Court was signed into law by then President Obasanjo in 2004 after approval from the National Assembly. As this controversial magnanimity created applauses to the president from many Niger Delta political elites, some activists and professionals raised possible concerns about the new law (still in place). For Example, Ledum Mitee, president of the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni people (MOSOP), considers the law as a scratch on the surface of the numerous problems facing the oil-rich region, as core issues like environmental degradation, marginalization and the right of self determination and natural resource control has failed to be addressed by the new law. Furthermore, the Executive Director of the Environmental Rights Action (ERA), Mr Douglas Oronto called for clarification on the meaning of the 200 meters depth Isobaths provided by the law as the new seaward margin for a littoral state. In the sam e vein, a onetime president of the Nigerian Bar Association, Mr O. C. J. okocha (SAN) questioned the ambiguity of the new margin and in his view; it may likely make no difference from the earlier judgment of the Supreme Court in 2002 as it concerns offshore derivation to littoral states.   Finally, Professor Ben Nwabueze, one of the country’s leading authority in constitutional law faulted the new law, saying what was (and is still) needed was (and is) a constitutional amendment, not an Act of parliament (Ojameruave, 2004). Another salient dissatisfaction is the too much concentration of revenues at the central level with no positive impacts on the citizenry. Since the country gained independence in 1960, revenue allocation has continued to skew in favour of the federal tier of government, which has benefited as high as about 60% and as low as 40% of oil dominated revenue shared among the three tiers of government. This high concentration has promoted wasteful spending and encouraged corruption by the politically privileged elites at the central level. In Nigeria, the federal government has hijacked responsibilities traditionally should have been under the state control, all with the aim of concentrating greater revenues at its control. Examples include responsibilities like the police, public transport, etc. Unlike Nigeria, in the Australian federation, responsibilities are well shared with the federal level responsible for taxation, defence, foreign affairs, postal and communication and the powers to make laws over states/territories. It remains a fact that the federal government of Nigeria lacks basic plans for transforming resources into meaningful developments. This explains the reasons for its political system being classified as a â€Å"do or die affair† (Awolaja, 2011). The gap between the federal government and the citizens is a major barrier on citizen’s demands for concrete development. In addition the weak and corrupt representation both in national and state levels exacerbate the condition. Increasing state derivation may help reduce dependence on the federal government’s monthly allocation; an exercise now considered a ritual that must be done. This change could likely increase the chances of accountability as government will be closer to the people, who in turn will stop at nothing to ensure their resources are rightfully channelled for equitable and meaningful development.    4. CHAPTER FOUR 4.1.   Advantages and Challenges    4.2.   Advantages There exist numerous benefits both to the federal and state tiers of government as well as local governments when the principle of derivation is implemented in its original sense. In the previous chapters, I have been able to highlight on some of the advantages. However, the expected principle may lead to: 4.2.1.  Ã‚   Economic Diversification It is an obvious fact that the principle of derivation will encourage diversification of the country’s economic activities and increase revenue generation as well as reduce the prevailing revenue sharing ritual that has eating deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian system. This will only be possible when percentage derivation to mineral producing states become attractive. This could also compel non-oil producing states that are now highly dependent on the Niger Delta wealth for sustenance to develop the natural resources within its territory. 4.2.2.  Ã‚   Human Capacity Development The cornerstone of a country’s economic success depends on how developed is the human wherewithal and competence. An economic diversification powered by the expected principle of derivation can fuel the development of human capacity of a nation, as the training and exposure of skilled professionals in the various industries which are technology driven and highly challenging, will become a necessity. 4.2.3.  Ã‚   Investment and Job Creation Also, rapid diversification will undoubtedly lead to investment opportunities and the creation of jobs for the increasingly high rate of unemployed Nigerian youths and possibly reduce crime level in the society. 4.2.4.  Ã‚   Proper Development The present percentage derivation has failed to reflect the needs of the local people and its governance. State and local governments should be able to handle development according to their felt needs and priorities, and not being constrained by lack of finances. Applying the derivation principle in its original sense may increase the chances of implementing programmes according to the needs and priorities of the people. For example, the Niger Delta region has continued to call for the remediation of its polluted environment whose damage came as a result of oil exploration; rather, the federal government has invested in what is not considered top priority. 4.2.5.   Reduction of Hostility Despite the fact that the oil producing Niger Delta region has long been agitating for resource control, a fair percentage derivation will reduce the agitation turned hostility especially on oil installations in the region and any other region in the future. 4.3.   Challenges Despite these numerous advantages, there exist various challenges to the actualization of a favourable percentage derivation. Some are: 4.3.1. Political and Capacity Problems The highly competitive but fragmented political system in Nigerian (like in Peru) coupled with the lack of checks and balances pose a major challenge to the implementation of the expected derivation principle. In terms of capacity, we believe Nigeria has come of age, but the influence of the former tends to weaken the latter. Today, we have seen some sub-national governments performing well above average in Nigeria. This is possible because these governments decided to invest in human capacity development in order to strengthen their local labour force. Unlike Nigeria, the Peruvian fiscal decentralization policy based on the system of automatic transfers to mineral producing areas failed because it never took into consideration the strength of its human capacity at the local level before implementing the policy.   Despite its longer period in the mining business, conflicts with neighbouring countries on territorial issues and political interests at the local level, and short-term p olicies contributed to the failure of this fiscal policy. 4.3.2.  Ã‚   High Dependence on Oil Proceeds  Ã‚      It is a well known fact that oil contributes over 90% of Nigeria’s foreign earnings, and also its national budgets are predicated on the basis of yearly crude oil production and price. These dependences continues to sustain its importance and attract high political actors and interests, and also explains why oil is considered now in the country as a natural resource for all unlike the periods when groundnuts and cocoa dominated the export market. In other words, upholding the expected percentage derivation may be perceived as unleashing financial threats on the federal government and the non-oil producing states. 4.3.3.  Ã‚   Legal Regimes The challenge posed by the country’s legal regime which is under the federal government’s control is indeed worrisome. For instance, the 1976 constitution vests mineral rights exclusively to the federal government’s control, the land use Act of 1978 and 1993, and the petroleum Act of 1969 are also legal regimes in favour of the federal government as it concerns natural resources. Repealing these repugnant laws has been faced with political manipulations from the federal government. This has always given the federal government the greater powers when it comes to the percentage derivation issue. Correcting these anomalies is highly necessary. This could explain why violence and hostility seems to be a favourable option. 4.3.4.    The Game with Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria If true federalism that reflects on fiscal policies is allowed to thrive in the Nigerian polity, the problem of unfair or too much derivation as conceived by both the dominant and opposing parties will be a thing of history. This is a major challenge facing the country at this stage of its development, and correcting this will mean reducing developmental barriers and increasing the chances of attaining sustainable economic stability. 5. CHAPTER FIVE 5.1.   CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS    The research has been able to establish the derivation principle currently in operation, and that which existed during the periods when groundnut from the North and cocoa from the West were the main sources of foreign earnings for Nigeria. It was found that the principle has been under the influence of political and ethnocentric factors, creating the much seen problems and dissatisfactions in the system. Also, analysis of various revenue allocation commissions’ recommendations prior to oil discovery in the Niger Delta indicated 50% as percentage derivation to natural resource producing regions and states. Unfortunately, this declined to a languishing 1% in the early 90’s, and currently stands at 13%. The major problem with the current system is the lack of technical base or any form of mathematical calculation. The paper has also been able to present some of the advantages and challenges of the expected percentage using Peru as an example. Finally, I consider the expected derivation principle (as opposed to resource control) as not presenting the best option for Nigeria’s economic success, but however, provides an opportunity or a pathway to getting there, especially as it can support developments in non-oil producing states and not turning them into a dependent variable as can be seen today. In order to reduce this dependence, the government should apply for a start (say 3 to 5 year term) a derivation of not less than 25% of direct revenues gotten from the exploration and the exploitation of natural resources of a producing state, with no first line charge of any kind from the federal government. At the expiration of the proposed term, a review can be made to ascertain the level of success achieved before further steps are taking. However, the country’s main focus should be on establishing a true federalism that reflects fiscal autonomy and independence of the constituent tiers of government, while the federal government concentrates more on its tax functions. This I believe will open the doors for rapid economic development in Nigeria.    BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES 1976 and 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria SECONDARY SOURCES BOOKS Adebayo, A. G; (1988) â€Å"Revenue allocation: A Historical Analysis of the Nigerian Experience† In: Olaniyan, R. O; (ed) Federalism in a Changing World (Nigeria). (Lagos, Nigeria: The Presidency)    INTERNET SOURCES Aluko, M. E; (2002) â€Å"Revenue Allocation and the Nigerian State: Of Derivation, Dichotomy and Debt Issues† at dawodu.com/aluko16.htm (last Visited on 28th June, 2011) Anugwom, E. E; (2001) â€Å"Federalism, Fiscal Centralism and the Realities of Democratisation in Nigeria: The Case of the Niger Delta† at unesco.org/most/crossroadsedl.htm (last visited on 28th June, 2011) Arellano-Yanguas, J; (2008) â€Å"A Thorough Modern Resource Curse? The New Natural Resource Policy Agenda and the Mining Revival in Peru at ids.ac.uk/files/Wp300.pdf (last visited on 25th July, 2011) Arowolo, D; (2011) â€Å"Fiscal Federalism in [emailprotected] Theory and Dimension† at http://onlineresearchjournals.com/aajoss/art/64.pdf (last visited on 28th June, 2011) Awolaja, A; (2011) â€Å"Nigeria and Challenges of Fiscal Federalism, In: Nigerian Tribune of 19th May, 2011† at http://tribune.com.ng/index.php/politics/22172-nigeria-and-challenges-of-fiscal-federalism (last visited on 28th June, 2011) Centre for the Future State; â€Å"How do Natural Resource Revenues Affect the Quality of Public Spending in Developing Countries? at dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/FutureState/CFS_resource_revenues_and_fiscal_governance.pdf (last visited on 24th July, 2011) Ejobowah, J. B; (2000) â€Å"Who Owns the Oil? The Politics of Ethnicity in the Niger Delta of Nigeria† at jstor.org/pss/4187306 (last visited 27th June, 2011) Ekpo, A. H; (2004) â€Å"Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations: The Nigerian Experience† at ffc.co.za/conf/papers/nigeria-igfr.pdf (last visited on 29th June, 2011) Ikpatt, C; and Ibanga, N. H; (2003) â€Å"Nigeria’s Mineral Resources: A Case for Resource Control†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   at nigerdeltacongress.com/narticles/nigeria_mineral_resources_a_case.htm (last visited on 1st July, 2011)    Ojameruaye, E; (2004) â€Å"The Offshore/Onshore Oil Dichotomy Abolition Act- Matters Arising† at nigerdeltacongress.com/oarticles/offshoreonshore_oil_dichotomy_ab.htm (last visited on 27th June, 2011) Ojo, E. O; (2010) ‘The Politics of Revenue Allocation and Resource Control in Nigeria: Implications for Federal Stability’ at http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:fVOo0BDFwDMJ:scholar.google.com/+The+Politics+of+Revenue+Allocation+and+Resource+Control+in+Nigeria:+Implications+for+Federal+Stability%E2%80%99hl=enas_sdt=0,5as_vis=1 (last visited on 29th June, 2011) Tuodolo, F; and Kaiser-Wilhelm, T. O; (1998) â€Å"The Kaiama Declaration† at unitedijawstates.com/kaiama.html (last visited on 14th July, 2011) Uche, C. U; and Uche, O. C; (2004) â€Å"Oil and the Politics of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria† at http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=vq=cache:6XmkQeNCqdEJ:citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi%3D10.1.1.135.3436%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf+oil+and+the+politics+of+revenue+allocation+in+nigeriahl=engl=ukpid=blsrcid=ADGEESi2zBl_n5yX0t76JotakM73xR4TWkn1y5k9adXeo7u2gLWBwjb6xtE_ZB63ZlnYRdd79rvvorofWlQB8PU_B-2piuX1eiJOt3ge6WFJZ5h9B2TzNs0SnMi06erq9LLBm8xPd1h4sig=AHIEtbQ30QoHjmLsMe4wf05fVfKwDTVcFw (last visited on 30th June, 2011) World Bank; (2001) State and Local Governance in Nigeria at http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm (last visited on 27th July, 2011)

Dynamics of crime and Delinquency Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dynamics of crime and Delinquency - Assignment Example This would not lead to the happiness of the society. Under this statement, Baccaria means that the stronger members of the society are guilty of oppressing the weaker members of the society. This is because they are accused of crimes, and hence they are under torture, to either confess them, or implicate others. Baccaria advocates against torturing a suspect, and this is mainly because they are not guilty, until the courts prove that they are indeed the ones who committed the offence. Furthermore, Baccaria advocates against the prison sentence (Barker and Colin, 29). He believes that imprisonment in a crime against humanity. On this basis, people should make policies aimed at preventing crime, instead of punishing crime. From this passage, we can denote that necessity refers to the preservation of the public liberty. These are rights and privileges enjoyed by the public. An individual can only be punished when they try to interfere with these public liberties. Baccaria denotes that justice is a bond that makes it possible to unite the society. Furthermore, justice is a concept that prevents individuals from being barbarians. This is the original state of mankind. On this basis, punishments that aim at destroying this bond of unity are not

Science, not Dogma Should Be the Standard Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Science, not Dogma Should Be the Standard - Essay Example Over the past century and one-half, however, people’s opinions regarding evolution have experienced an evolution. Many religious persons today acknowledge evolution to be valid. The Pope even admitted creation and evolution are compatible. Still, there are a dwindling numbers of people who choose to stubbornly reject the science and contend that magical account of life described in the Bible is the â€Å"gospel truth.† This emotion-charged dispute usually occurs when the fundamentalists object to science being taught in school. They want the creation version of events taught alongside the scientific version as a viable alternative. Eventually, everyone will acknowledge that the matter is not subject to dispute no more than the question of a flat earth vs. round earth is debated. Unfortunately, it will take generations to achieve this reasonable goal because our society evolves extremely slowly. Creationism is not based on the scientific model. No evidence exists, nothin g to test or question. It is based on the belief that a supernatural being magically created the universe including all life in it. The faithful accept this version of events without question because if they did question it they likely would cease to believe it. Science is a journey for the truth. Hypothesis is formed from observation, testing and retesting. When new information is presented the original premise is altered. Science continually tries to disprove the hypothesis or theory until the conclusion is shown as credible and irrefutable based on all available evidence. Religion readily accepts the explanations of an ancient, very superstitious and uneducated people. â€Å"Religion is based on faith that is never questioned while science is based on knowledge that is constantly questioned† (Edwards, 1980). Creationist’s first line of attack is that evolution is just a â€Å"theory† therefore unproven and unacceptable when compared to the God’s unassa ilable holy words. Evolution is scientifically proven by the same method scientists prove other universally held theories. Gravity is a theory. No one knows precisely how or why gravity works but we all know it does, same with evolution. Creationists require a much higher standard of proof from evolutionists than they are willing to provide. Religious fundamentalists thought the earth was flat prior to the 16th Century. In fact, since the church controlled the government at that time it was considered heresy to publically disagree with that falsity, a crime punishable by torture and/or death. However, learned people including Christopher Columbus and Queen Isabella knew better. So did Aristotle who proved the earth was round 2000 years before Columbus. (Lienhard, 1998). Science was rejected then as now by the overtly religious but even they accept the scientific evidence regarding disease, that the Devil does not cause sickness. They also, because of science, realize the sun does no t revolve around a flat earth as is described in the Bible. â€Å"There are still many points of major conflict between science and religion. In each case, only one will eventually win public support. The historical record indicates that religion wins very few of these disputes† (Robinson, 2003) Darwin theorized that species adapt and change over the duration of millions of years according to new environmental conditions. He called this process natural selection. Darwin observed and recorded

The Things They Carried ( Tim o'brien) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Things They Carried ( Tim o'brien) - Essay Example Kathleen has been used symbolically to represent the reader. Just like the reader, she responds to the author. Her age and relationship with the storyteller, affects the manner in which he relays and conveys what happens. Just like the reader, Kathleen hears the story for the first time from her father (O’ Brien 32). Another symbolic figure in the story is the young Vietnamese soldier who is dead, constantly appearing in O’Brien’s nightmares, visions, and hallucinations. This symbolizes guilt over horrible acts in war. O ‘Brien had thrown a grenade during war four years ago, but was not certain whether he had killed a man. The author has also used the character Linda symbolically to represent how it is possible to bring back pats elements through storytelling and imagination. Linda was O’ Brien’s classmate who died in fifth grade of brain tumor (O’ Brien 132). She symbolizes O’ Brien’s believe that storytelling can be used to negotiate confusion and pain. She was his first love and his first experience of death. Through her, the author communicates that through imagination, the past can be brought to the present, and the dead made

The Green Party | Political Analysis

The Green Party | Political Analysis The emergence of the green movements was related to a shift to post-materialist values in advanced industrial societies, especially in Europe (Muller-Rommel, 2002). Aiming for better quality of life and self-fulfilment, the green agenda was originally focused on single issues like provision of park tracks, urban renewal, high-way construction, nuclear energy and cruise missiles in the 1980s. During the period of 1980 to 1984 there were Green Parties in twelve Western European countries with which started to successfully perform in the parliamentary system, including national government (Muller-Rommel, 2002). During the 1970s, Green Parties were founded in more countries like Europe, Australia, Brazil, the USA and Ukraine (Doherty, 2002). Although the first Green Parties were established in Tasmania (1972), New Zealand (1972) and Britain (1973), they were not considered as successful and remained small and weak in their political performance. Although the different green parties were all based on the same basic principles, their evolution, progress and electoral success vary widely between different countries. As table 1.1 shows, Austria, Belgium Finland, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherland, Sweden and Switzerland identified as the countries with more successful Green Parties. Green party success is a multi-variable phenomena (Richard). Existence, electoral and parliamentary power of green parties , their electoral success and environmental consciousness are vary widely between countries (Rich). Factors behind the differential success Although many theories have been put forward to discuss this variation of success, most of them consider electoral success rather than the success as a whole. New social movements, new class accounts and post materialism (Carter, 2007: 88) are the three major theoretical attempts to explain the green party development but failed in explaining the differential success (Carter, 2007). New social movements are students, peace , antinuclear, feminist and environmental movements that are responsible for protest campaigns that swept Western Europe from 1960s (Carter, 2007). New class accounts justify the new politics targeting basic changes in economic and social structures of capitalists society in post war era (Carter, 2007: 88). Democrats in industrial countries shift away from material concerns for economy and security to post-material concerns such as a concern for liberty or for the environment is explained by the post materialism. However, the Political Opportunity Structure (POS) t he dimensions of the political environment that either encourages people to use collective action or discourage them from doing so, and which shape the development of movement explains the variation in success in aspects of structure, culture, electoral system and party competition. (Carter, 2007:88) Rich () identified the environmental consciousness with an identified political action which is appropriate to the individual state agenda, as the fundamental factor of the development of a green party is success. He further explains that the progress of green parties from 1970s 1980s was based on their understanding, that pressure group activity and personal spirituality are not substitutes for political actions. In Harmel and Robertson (1984); Hauss and Rayside (1978) Cleavages or strains; institutional factors, such as characteristics of the electoral system and centralization of the government; and more directly political factors, such as the position of trade unions and the configuration of existing party competition were identified as factors behind differential success. As a main dependent variable in green party success electoral success is determined by their capability of reaching a given vote or a seat threshold (MÃ ¼ller-Rommel,1994: Kitschelt 1988). In a successful party it should not be limited to a particular election but stable and consistent over a considerable period (Bomberg, 2002). However the recent attention of this analysis is more towards the party behaviour within the government (MÃ ¼ller-Rommel, 1994). It was argued that, as existing parties fail to meet new requirements of material wealth, considerable changes in the industrial formation, modifying living standards, and the increase of postmaterialist values, Green Parties gain a better opportunity to establish their selves in political and social arena (Inglehart 1990). Analysing the green party evolution of Germany, Britain and France is critical to clear understanding of this differential success due to their contrasting behaviour. German Greens The German Greens were neither the first green party nor the first greens that entered a parliament (Redding and Viterna,1999). However, it is highlighted in the literature on green party evolution due to the early success which inspired the rise and spread of green parties globally and due to the formation of a red-green coalition (Muller Rommel and Poguntike, 2002). The four pillars of Green parties Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Grassroots democracy and Nonviolence introduced by German green party in 1979 to 1980, are fundamental to the world wide green parties. Unquestionably, Die Grunen in the Federal Republic of Germany was the most successful green party in Europe (Oneill, 1997; Muller Rommel and Poguntike, 2002). The German Green Party Die Gruenen was established in 1980. It emerged from the new social movements of the 1960s and 1970s. It was mainly the peace movement, the womens movement, the anti-nuclear movement and the ecology movement that contributed to the foundation of the party. The early Greens focused on protest campaigns regarding issues like nuclear power, Pershing and Cruise missiles and acid rain (Carter, 2007).. Proportional representation of electoral system and open POS of Germany helped German greens to enter the political system (X). As it refunds the cost of election campaign for parties who earn more than 0.5 % votes, the electoral system of the Germany encouraged the arrival of greens into politics. Consequently, green party was able to work on election campaign without drawing a rich sponsor (carter, 2007). Although Germany was governed by the SPD from 1969 to 1982, the social-democrats failed to resolve the conflict between environment and economic interest groups and respond to new political demands raised by the green movement. This failure was one factor of the electoral success and establishment of Die Gruene in the German political arena (X). . In the 1983 federal elections, Die Gruenen gained 5.6% of the votes and won 27 seats in the national parliament. Though the 5% threshold value of electoral system makes harder to small parties to entering the parliament, German Greens were able to be the first Green party entering European national legislature achieving that barrier (X). This experience enabled Die Grunen to gain national media attention and build up financial resources, parliamentary skills and political credibility, as well as to expand their popular support (Frankland 1995: 27). With all the publicity and their strategies, German greens managed to increase their votes in the 1987 federal election and was able to won 8.3% of the votes (X). The federal election of 1998 was an important milestone in their history as they participated in a new federal government in an unprecedented coalition with the social-democratic party (Rommel and Poguntke, 2002). To analyse if the greens were successful in this coalition, it is crucial to assess their negotiation with the coalition partner, the strategies they applied to influence government policies and their conflict resolution strategies (Rommel and Poguntke, 2002). In contrast to countries like Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands, the absence of a communist party after 1956 facilitated the establishment of greens in Germany. The Greens filled up the gap of a left political party (Richard) and X. With this progress western Germany could win 8.8% in 2005 and more success than 5% of East Germany (Carter, 2007). Another challenge the Greens were confronted are the internal conflicts between two opposed internal factions. Fundis members adhere to green principles without any compromise while Realos are more pragmatic and willing to adopt party strategies to be more successful X). However, wise conflict resolution and proper leadership could drive the party success (Carter, 2007). British Greens Britain Green party People was the first European Green party established in 1973 (Carter, 2007). This party was based on the Blueprint for Survival which consists of four principles; human survival with minimum disruption of ecological process, the maximum conservation of materials and energy, a population in which recruitment balanced loss, and social system which the individual citizen was content with (Oneill, 1997). Despite that attempt of demonstrating their environmental consciousness they could obtain only 1.8% votes in 1974 general election and among five constituencies North West recorded with the highest of 3.9%. In 1975 as a pure green approach among other parties with dark green and red green fractions they have changed their name as Ecology party (Oneill, 1997). However, British Green party is considered to be having an unsuccessful fortune, compare to most of other greens with national government success (Carter, 2007; Oneill,1997). The major reason behind this regression is the British electoral system and its poor recognition of small political parties (Carter, 2007). A rather closed Political Opportunity Structure in Britain focuses more on major parties and their success and its opportunity for a smaller party is negligible (Carter). Since the British Plurality electoral system focuses on individual constituency contests between major parties, prospects for small parties to enter the parliament are rare, unless they represent a Welsh or Scottish Nationality based on geography. The financial barrier created by the British electoral system discourages small parties from contesting in elections as they need to deposit 500 pounds per candidate before election, which is only refundable if a minimum of 5% of the vote is won. The Green party faced a significant economic crisis after the general election of 1992, as they lost their deposits for all 253 candidates and did not receive any government funding (Carter, 2007). The competition by other political parties trying to draw environmentalists votes, such as Liberal Democratic, Scottish and Welsh nationalists party also created a hard time for greens in establishing their political stability. However, as an important miles stone they were able to win 15% of the votes in 1989 election (Carter, 2007). Growing public environmental consciousness, protests against the Conservative Government and fragile nature of new Liberal Democratic party are considered to be the major reasons behind this success. However, as the Liberal Democrats got more successful and materialism grew again, the Green party was confronted with a lot of obstacles and their popularity decreased (Redding and Viterna, 1999: Carter, 2007). However recent positive trend of British Green party is more likely to be satisfactory as they could secure the European parliament election and Scottish election in1999 and Greater London Assembly in 2000. Successes of 2003 and 2004 could win the seven seats of Scottish Parliament. These achievements triggered their performance in national election and won 3.37 contested seats in 2005 while saving 24 deposits. Reformation of Political Opportunity Structure of European parliament through introduction of proportional representation opened up the way for this positive trend in greens fortune in Britain (Carter, 2007). French Greens The establishment of the French greens was triggered by the anit-nuclear movement and its opposition the construction of a powerful nuclear plant under a right-wing government in 1974. The first French Green party Les Verts was formed in 1984. It won eight seats in European election in 1989. The French Greens were first elected to the French National Assembly in1997. After Francois Mitterant, was elected president in 1981, broke his promise of submitting a moratorium on the construction of a nuclear power plant, environmentalists realized the importance of forming a unique party to raise their voice on environmental problems. Generation Ecologie was the second French Green party. It was formed in1990 by Brice Lalonde, former Environmental Minister. Even though both parties were successful in the 1992 regional elections, they were unsuccessful in the 1993 national election and failed to win even a single seat. One of the major reasons why the green parties had trouble to develop stability is the Political Opportunity Structure in France. In contrast to Germany or the UK, the electoral system of France is based on two rounds of elections. There is a legislative and a two-round presidential election. 12.5% vote winners of first round can proceed with the second round. Hence passing this threshold values alone was again a major challenge for minor parties. As a mutual effort socialists and greens had to reach the target together to keep their political stability and survival in the parliament. Les Verts could again establish in 1997 through a coalition with Dominique Voyer the national speaker of the socialist government and secure the status even in 2002. In contrast to Germany, left -right cleavage of the French political system is basically a static system which constrains the establishment of a new party in the political arena. However, the decline of political stability of major parties in 1980s facilitated the entering of greens into the political arena. Although coalition used as a strategy for entering the political system it was the beginning of decline of party structural integrity. Diverse political views between members was fundermental to lots of internal conflicts and some of the main green activists left the party due to the inconsistency of the political vision. With the changes of POS under plural left alliance green party was exhausted with organizational structure, leadership and financial stability (Carter, 2007). Conclusion Evolution of green parties and the rationale behind their rise and fall vary widely between countries. However, German, France and Britain examples which have different fortunes for green parties reflect that they all bear a common pool of facts behind the differential success. National constraints that green parties confronted with vary widely between countries. Firstly the institutional structure of the state, where countries with closed system of government have more space for ideas and establishment of green parties. However openness of the bureaucracy marginalizes the green parties as in Britain. Political tradition of a country and nature of the electoral system also can obstruct or facilitate the development of green party. However, no single factor can determine the success and development of a green party or the potential of its establishment (challenge Richard). The essay supports the (X)s argument of existence, electoral and parliamentary power of green parties is proportional to the performance of green parties in national government coalitions. The actions of a green party especially ideological development, internal struggles and performance in the government, influenced on its electoral success (Redding and Viterna, 1999). The literature figure out that electoral system of the country, environmental consciousness, institutional structure of the party, financial stability and party behaviour (internal conflicts and conflict resolution) as the major factors behind the differential success of Green parties as a whole. According to Skocpol (1992) being successful as a party is lie in how social demands well within the institutional structure, especially in opportunities and obstacles. Foreign Direct Investment: Comparison of India and China Foreign Direct Investment: Comparison of India and China Foreign Direct Investment is a hot topic in most policy circles as it is associated in many instances with significant macroeconomic changes and improvements in the range of goods and services produced in recipient countries. Furthermore growth in recipient countries is often ascribed to these inflows and so competition for higher inflows of FDI has become competitive. Most of the developing and developed countries increase their economy by enhancing their share in the global market through FDI inflows. As FDI shows more impact on the countrys economy, most of the foreigners are investing their amount in other countries for improving their profits with less manpower and minimum initial cost. These inflows were easily achieved by the investors by just fulfilling their basic requirements and maintaining their policies. FDI can be used by the countries only when they meet some of the major requirements like transfer of capital, a source of funds for foreign operations, Control investmen t and a balance of payments flow (Nicolas, B., 2010). Even though the FDI inflows in developing countries are low that is nearly 5%, this shows more impact on the economy in terms of the development programs by introducing new technologies. This change will be occurred only in the surroundings of investment areas. Here, in this research the FDI inflows between India and China are studied by comparing both the countries. Further of this study clearly explains the various aspects that are considered by the India and China for increasing the FDI inflows in the global market and also illustrates the policies that are followed by China as most of the investors prefer China when compare to the India. Finally, it recommends some of the policies and the changes that need to be made by the Indian Government for improving its FDI inflows. 1.2. Aim and Objectives Aim: To study the variations between the FDI policies of Indian and China based on their inflows and overall performance of the economy. Objectives: To study the importance of FDI and the required fundamental policies for acquiring the FDI. To research on the impact of FDI inflows in India and China based on their overall performance. Identifying the possible steps for Indian policy makers for improving their FDI inflows. Statistically evaluating the comparison between India and China in terms of FDI inflows. 1.3. Purpose of Study This study mainly focuses on the Foreign Direct Investment, the role of FDI in India and China and also illustrates the comparison between these two countries in terms of FDI. This research is selected in order to know more about the investments made by the developing countries and the involvement in international financial banking markets to influence the global and political aspects. This study is mostly useful for the people who are willing to know about the role played by FDI in the fast growing countries like India and China where these two countries differs in their environmental conditions. While researching about the FDI in both countries, one can easily analyze that China is showing more interest in attracting the FDI and is leading their economy when compare to India. So in order to clearly investigate on this point, this study also focuses on the aspects and the policies that need to be designed by the Indian country for attracting the investors and also to increase the ov erall performance of the economy by raising the inflows when compared to China. 1.4. Research Context In this study the researcher is focused on the worlds largest two most populated countries: India and China with a greatest history background. These two countries are known to be fast growing countries in the world and are known for their ample facilities and environmental conditions. These two countries are economically improving their standards in terms of technology and infrastructural growth. However, China is considered to be more positive in terms of attracting FDIs and are almost leading the comparison with India. In this research the time is a biggest constrain and to understand the research physically is really a tough target for the researcher by visiting both countries to meet and interview/ survey the financial organizations experts from various locations. However it is also noticed that in India only the FDI policies are changing from place to place based on the local governments rules and regulations. All the major rules and regulations governed by RBI and Government o f India are applicable, addition to that the investing company also needs to ensure that the environmental and ethical issues are not disturbed by the foreign investors in local and urban areas of various parts of India. As an example, there are some pilgrim places of India which does not allow non vegetarian food or related items so in that circumstance neither Government of India or RBI cannot allow the foreigners to invest their amount for a restaurant or bar and etc. Similarly in China it is one of the largest countries in the world and is having different cultures and backgrounds with in the country. Hence from the above context it is understood that this research will mainly focus on the secondary data available and in some areas it can get into the help of people related to the financial and banking industry. 1.5. Research Methodology For conducting any type of research, the data needs to be gathered by the researcher where this collected information should be in such a way that it is valid and accurate. Researcher need to choose a suitable method from various research methods, by which the researcher can successfully finish the research. Generally there exist two different types, primary data and secondary data. Primary data mainly focus on the aim of the research where the researcher can easily collects the information from various methods like surveys, interviews, etc. Where as in the secondary data, the researcher can collect the data only from the sources like journals, books, magazines, online articles, etc. where the researcher need to collect the accurate data as these recourses will not focus on the aim of research (Kumar, R., 2005). Here in this research, researcher collects the information through secondary data as the main aim of this research is to compare the FDI inflows in both India and China. As t he time is the biggest constrain, it will be really tough target for the researcher to select the primary data as the researcher either need to do interview /survey with the concern persons by visiting two countries where it cannot be possible with the period of time. So, its better to prefer secondary data for gathering accurate information for the research by referring various resources. Hence, the research can be successfully completed by analyzing the collected information and drawing the conclusion from this data. Chapter 2: Literature review 2.1. Overview This chapter will provide the suitable information and required material for completing research successfully with no issues during the research process. At the same time the literature review gives a basic idea about the research problem solving background with additional material from their related background history. The growth of multinational enterprise (MNE) activity in foreign direct investment (FDI) has grown at a faster rate than most other international transactions as well as the trade flows between countries. The research literature review covers the objects related to foreign direct investment, detailed introduction and description of FDI and impacts of FDI. International Monetary Fund (IMF) has defined the FDI as an international investment of one company with the target of enduring relationship i.e. Investments made by company must exceed the equity of Target Company by 10%. The major requirements of the investors will help in faster growth of their organization which is explained by Nicolas, B. (2010) in terms of Control investments, supply of funds for foreign operations, a balance of payments flow and Capital transfers. 2.2. Brief History and background of Foreign Direct Investment In the present world, there exist various investment techniques for the corporations for increasing their growth. If these industries lacks in making right decisions in their investment then it may lead to reduce their growth and their level in the global market. So, many of the countries prefer Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) compare to other techniques because most of the corporations get affected financially due to their investment decisions. Mostly FDI is preferred as it is considered as an integral part of an open and effective international economic system and also referred as the major catalyst to development (OECD, 2002). In the present market, USA stood a number one position in FDI flows. According to Nicolas Breitfeld (2010, p.1), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is defined by the IMF as an international investment of one company with the intention of lasting relationship. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) plays an important role in the financial sector. Generally most of the countries believe that increasing the international linkages through FDI is an important feature of financial globalization and elevates the major challenges for statistics and policymakers in industrial and developing countries (Neil, K. P., 2004). Further of this section, it clearly discusses the views of authors on FDI, the importance of FDI and mainly focuses on the issues that are being faced by the countries while introducing the FDI. Even-though authors define Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in different ways based on their research it is mainly mend to development on countrys and globalization. Some of the authors views on FDI are discussed below: According to Organization for Economic Co-Operation and development (OECD) (2008, p.62), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) occurs when a business located in one country (the direct investor) invests in a business located in another country (the direct investment enterprise) with the objective of creating a strategic and a lasting relationship. Here, the author suggests that occurrence of FDI exists only when the business persons invests their money in another country. They invest their income in another country by making some rules and regulations in their relationship. But according to Alexander, L. and IMFD, (2002), foreign direct investment defined as the integration of three components which are illustrated below: The branch profits need to be distributed and divided in equity without any holding withholding taxes. Accrued interest need to be paid to the direct investor by the direct investment enterprise, this can also be referred as income on debt. Earnings are reinvested in proportion with the direct investment stake. In this context, author says that the investment and the interest benefited by the business people need to be redistributed in an equal proportion among the investor and the direct investment enterprise. At the same time, Neil, K. P. (2004, p.3), discusses that according to BPM5 (Balance of Payments Manual) FDI defined as a category of international investment that reflects the objective of a resident in one economy (the direct investor) obtaining a lasting interest in an enterprise resident in another economy (the direct investment enterprise). ÂÂ  Here, the author discuss that FDI indirectly affects the economy of another country as the other country invest their income on another country for gaining interest on their investment. Even though the opinions and views of the authors differs in defining the FDI but all the authors focus on only one point that is the benefit dragged by the investor and the direct investment enterprise. These investors of get benefited globally with FDI on the interest on their investment and also increases their international linkages with the industries established in another country. ÂÂ   2.3. Impacts of FDI Foreign Direct Investment is considered as a driver of economic growth and development for developing countries which often lack the technology or capital to promote sustained economic growth and development. Mostly, FDI is considered as one of the major drivers of globalization as it continuously raises with the high growth rates before the financial crisis hit the world economy. The way through which FDI promotes economic growth and development to the countries is contentious because there is no definitive evidence and lags in supporting the literature. Even though there is no empirical evidence in representing the impact of FDI on the countries there are some theoretical explanations from which one can easily analyse the impacts of FDI on developed and developing countries. According to Bora, B. (2002, p.168), FDI flows were increasing rapidly much more quickly than international trade flows, which in turn were increasing faster than world GDP. Laura Alfaro (2003) says that FDI of fers great advantages to host countries because many of the academics and policy makers argue that there exists a most important positive effect on the development of host countries. FDI not only acts as the source of the valuable technology but also helps the countries in developing the linkages with the local firms that indirectly helps the country in raising the economy. Due to these reasons, most of the developing and industrialized countries offer incentive for encouraging the FDI in their economies. The environmental impacts of foreign direct investment may be positive, negative or neutral based on the institutional and industrial context. Gorg and Greenwood (2002) comes under a conclusion that the effect due to FDI is negative by reviewing the information from the foreign-owned to domestically owned firms. But Lipsey (2002) supports the positive benefits in preferring FDI. FDI flows attained a new record level right from the year 1990 to 2000. Then, from the year 2001 the gro wth in the investment failed and the later years it saw a steady and steep decline in global FDI flows. , Figure: Shows trends in global FDI flows during the year 1991 to 2003 (FDI, 2007, p.7). FDI affects the economic growth of the country in various aspects like it raises the formation of human capital, provides a facility to transfer the technology between the host countries and also stimulates the domestic investment. The relationship between the impact of FDI and economic growth can be easily analyzed with the help of production function and also with the other variables that affect economic growth such as domestic, trade, labour and capital (Falki, N. 2009). Production function was done based on the endogenous growth. According to Kumar, N. (1998, p.112), Direct investment was thought of mainly as a flow of capital, possibly replacing local capital or possibly representing marginal additions to the host countrys capital stock, followed by the necessity of financing dividends and interest, and possibly repatriation of capital. Some of the authors studied on the impact of FDI on economic growth in developing countries where those opinions are illustrated below: Authors views on Does FDI promote Economic Growth in developing countries S.No. Authors name Researched during the year Does FDI promote Economic Growth in developing countries (Yes/No/May be) Explanation 1. Balasubramanyam 1996, 1999 May be Requires open or neutral trade regime 2. Borensztein 1998 May be Depends on education level of workforce 3. De Mello 1999 May be Depends on degree of complementarily and substitution between FDI and domestic investment 4. Graham and Wada 2001 Yes Raised per capita GDP in Chinese provinces with FDI concentration 5. Graham 1995 May be TNCs market power can generate negative impacts 6. Loungani and Razin 2001 May be Risks 7. Lim 2001 May be Depends on tax incentives, regulatory and legal impediments, macroeconomic instability 8. Marino 2000 May be Requires open trade and investment policies 9. Mallampallyand Sauvant 1999 May be Requires human resource development, information and other infrastructure 10. Markusen and Venables 1999 Yes Raises productivity and exports of domestic firms, generates spillovers 11. Rodrik 1999 No Reverse causality: TNCs locate, rather than drive growth, in more productive and faster growing countries Table: Shows the authors explanation on Does FDI Promote Economic Growth in developing Countriesthis is a question? (LyubaZarsky, 2005, p.25) From the above table, it can be understood that out of 11 authors, only 2 authors support that FDI promotes economic growth in the developing countries as they explain that it raises the productivity, exports of domestic firms and stated a practical example that it raised the percapita GDP of china government with the help of FDI. Rodrik, opposed the views of the other authors on supporting the FDI as based on their research. From Rodrik research, it has been stated that it doesnt shown impact rather it was derived as a reverse causality. Apart from these three authors, the remaining 8 authors were in a dynamo whether to support the FDI or not because all these authors states that the impact on FDI on economic growth depends only on the circumstances that the author considers but not on any other aspects. For example: FDI shows more impact on economic growth only when the government fulfil some basic needs such as require open trade, investment policies, human resource development, i nformation, other infrastructure, etc. If these requirements are fulfilled by the government then automatically it get benefited with the FDI but if it fails in reaching those needs then it may face some risks due to the policies and the agreement between the countries. Hence, it can be stated that impacts of FDI directly depends on the situations and circumstances that are being considered by the government. By tightening of international financial conditions will have as awful effect on inflows of FDI. In the recent years, this has been main source of assets for many countries (U. N. Staff. 2009).FDI shows more effect on the economic growth of the countries as it provides various benefits to the countries that acquire FDI are illustrated below (Khan Arshad, 2007): Introduces the latest techniques and technologies of marketing and management with the help of FDI, the developing countries can know more about the latest techniques and the technologies that are being used by the developed countries. By acquiring and implementing these latest technologies in the developing countries, to some extent it can increase its growth in terms of economy. Exploitation and utilization of local raw materials usage of raw materials in the countries will be increased by exporting these excess materials to other countries and get benefited with them by importing other raw materials from other country which are shortage in their countries. Can be easily access to the new technologies as there will be a rapid flow between the countries, each of the country can know more easily about the other country and their religion. Based on this analysis, it can assess and access the technologies in their own region by making contract with the other countries. Financial flows between the countries Foreign inflows between the countries are used for financing current account deficits. The finance flows between the countries are transferred in the form of FDI where it doesnt generate interests and repayment of principal but internally raises the human capital stock through job training. Chapter 3: Empirical Literature on FDI based on INDIA and CHINA 3.1. Effects of FDI on all other countries when compared with India and china The existence of a strong negative relationship between trade share and country size was supported by the literature on trade and development. Country size and trade ratio are inversely proportional in size (larger the size of the country smaller is the trade ratio), the foreign trade, investment, and technology transfer between countries will directly affect the degree of sincerity and competitive pressures emanating from abroad (Pieter, B. 2007). Thus, the impact of these competitive pressures would be much less in a large country such as China and India than that among other East Asian NICs. In recent years china had recognized its need towards foreign trade, investment and technology with the aim of modernization, nothing like the Third World developing countries (India) that impoverished foreign capital. 1984-85 1994-95 1999-2000 2004-05 2006 2007 World 2.2 4.8 18.3 9.0 12.9 14.8 Developed economies 2.1 3.9 19.1 7.7 12.80 15.6 Developing economies 2.8 8.1 15.8 11.9 12.5 12.6 Developing Asia 2.3 7.9 12.1 9.9 11.0 10.6 East Asia 1.9 9.0 14.8 9.3 8.7 8.6 China 1.8 15.9 10.4 7.7 6.4 5.9 South Asia 0.2 1.7 2.4 3.3 6.2 5.7 India 0.1 1.7 2.7 3.1 6.6 5.8 Table 2: shows FDI inflow as percentage of gross domestic fixed capital formation (GDFCF), 1944 -2007. (Source: Prema, C. A. 2009, p.379) The average annual level of FDI inflow for developing Asia had raced sharply from US$ 19 billion during 1984 1985 to US$ 500 billion till 2007, at the same time share to developing countries have raised from 15.1 to 17.4 percent which is shown in the above table. The gross domestic fixed capital (GDFCF) as a share of FDI inflow is higher for all the developing countries in the period 1984 1996 and reversal due to the Asian financial crisis during 1997 98. FDI inflow for developing Asia with the average FDI/GDFCF ratio during entire period 1984 2007 is approximately 9 percent and 7.1 per cent when compared with all the developing countries at the same time the global average is 7.4 per cent. China is the recipient country of inward flow and the largest developing country from past two decades where it has been investigated a theoretical increase in inflow with in developing Asia. Among all the countries china was in the second position for total FDI flow as per the ASEAN countries , with increased average annual level of US$ 3 billion during 2000-2007, and from the year 1980 to 1997 almost before six years china was in the second half with US$ 30 billion which was the onset effect of financial crises from 1997-98, due to decline and with determination from about US$ 35 billion per annum before the year 1997 to an annual average of about US$ 24 billion between 1997-79. Establishment of export-oriented industries is heavily concentrated by chinas FDI, there observation on the share of FIEs for total exports in transition economies of china is two percent of expended persistently before 1980 and approximately 60 percent by the year 2006. India process to increases FDI participation in export- oriented activities which had remained at a outlier region of FDI whose one/third FDI during the independence in 1947 was a major amount of stock as a primary sector with plantation, mining and oil at the same time one/forth was the manufacturing and all the remaining stock s are in services, mostly trade, construction, transportation and utilities. The inflow started increasing in manufacturing from 1960s although with a divestment from this sector of FDI, since, low-wages, low skilled manpower are the Indias huge supply it can attract garments and other simple assembly activities which would indirectly favor the heavy foreign investment industry thus primarily focusing towards domestic market. From mid 1990s a slight increase in software is observed as well as significant competition with the world market at industrial production was not notable (Park, J. H. 2002).some of the difficulties which are to be faced and over come for fast development of the country . India faced many difficulties to attract foreign investors in both products and services market now it is only success to service industry of IT mainly. In order to overcome these difficulties to stimulate domestic demand this is given in three steps: The interest rates should be competitive in RBI. Value added tax (VAT) are to be implemented. Reduce the budget deficit through government. Figure: shows the financial states of India and china GDP the total chinas financial assets is approximately 220 per cent of GDP at the same time Indias financial assets is 160 per cent, countries savings and investment is the great strength for chinas financial system and Indias financial system is outside occur in savings and investments (Sources: Slide share 2008, slide No:18). 3.2. Fundamental policies of FDI India followed market-distorting policies on both foreign and private investments thus with this estimation about barriers for imports and exports are analyzed. Thus it become necessary to control the production and distribution as well as administered price controls etc. The impacts of opening up policies are likely to open up with foreign trade, investment and technology transfer, which would be much less in large countries of china and India when compared with all other East Asian NICs. Chinas opening policies in recent years is the success story with the favorable impact is not only for small economies but also for all large continental economies. China and India may not suffer from a large country constriction for adopting the export-oriented, outward-looking development strategy considerably (Park, J. H. 2002). The reformist policy is to fill the domestic savings gap which is necessary for economic development with foreign capital inflows, along with other goals in advanced for eign technology and managerial skills, and to promote exports to increase the foreign exchange earnings of the country. Due to open-door policy Chinas trade and inflow of foreign direct investment and loans are impressive, thus within a very short time china became a major exporting country, and an export competitor with the East Asian NICs (Newly Industrializing Countries) and ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries in the Asia Pacific region. The opening policies in china have contributed to the countrys economic growth and development considering all domestic economic events. The Indias economic reforms undertaken in 1991 in light of Chinas experience with the export-oriented, foreign direct investment strategy for economic growth and development which has been examined with superiority of export-oriented, outward-looking development strategies. Thus China can provide important lessons and policy implications in economic development for all Third World developing countries like India. The success story of china open to worlds economy made it ideal for studying the relationship between trade and development as well as for testing the validity of export-promoting development strategy. 3.3. Historical Background and National Goals 3.3.1. History of FDI in India The generational explanation of history is given as follows after Indias independence: during 1947 to 48 there was the British owned the private foreign capital through the national policies resolution which is Swadeshi movement Industrial policy. In the next generation i.e. from 1949 to 1953 foreign investments where far away from trio of domestic business house with foreign capital as well as with the government nationalist sentiments. The second Economic plan was launched in 1957 as industrialization through import substitution and encouraging private investment. Some of the selected industries got foreign collaboration and JV mostly manufacturing companies which are retained participation in India FDI since 1960s, the devaluation of rupee encouraged the socialist idealism banks and foreign oil majors nationalized after late 1960s. After almost 8 years in 1968 the foreign investment board had encouraging investments on there own terms and conduction. In the year 1973as per the F oreign Exchange Act (FERA) which launched a new article that all firms should come together for their foreign equity, holding 40% of foreign equity to be considered as Indian companies due to which IBM as well as coca cola is exited. After seven years of strict vigilance on FDI, from the year 1980 licensing procedures were liberalized to softened, technology transfer and royalty payments relaxed, foreign investment was encouraged wherever possible. During 1900-s rupee value got down, withdrawal of NRI money, India turned to IMF; there was liberalization on trade regime and regulatory frame work. Many of the industries were invited by FDI and in some cases limit was increased from 51% to 100%. The service sector was again opened for FDI. The political instability after 1995 had started but a perception towards FDI had changed due to changes in government kept focus on FDI. 3.3.2. History of FDI in China China has joined the joint venture with other countries in the year1979, and by the year 1986 china became fully foreign owned enterprise. It was divided into four zones namely Shantou, Shenzhen, and Xiamen in the year 1980. After four years in 1984 it was found that chinas economic zone has fourteen cities and whole china combined by late 1900s. There was a rapid economic growth in reform period due to profusion of labour and its low costs, Rapid expansion of Chinas domestic market at the same time plays important role of overseas Chinese for increasing integration with world economy. The marketing effects are generally obtained by imports and exports in both bilateral countries. FDI is very essential for developing countries for Off setting the capital deficiency, Acquiring advanced technology, Gaining production know-how, Promoting exports as well as to Table 2: shows FDI in India-China products Trade (in million US Dollars). (Source: Prema, C. A. 2009, p.379) The two highest population countries of the world are India and China which together contain approximately 40 per cent of the worlds humidity on an adjacent landmass in Asia. Both countries are pride in birthplace of civilization entering the era of sharing worlds greatest development problem. The underdeveloped areas of these two countries is due to huge population relative to land and other resources, around 1950s there was no commitment to national planning for economic modernization as there was new governments of China and India, led by Mao Zedong and Jawaharlal Nehru so as to eliminate poverty and raise the standard of living (Park, J. H. 2002). Approaches to Development: Some of the important characteristics shared within India and China as the wealth of people relative to other rare resources such as arable land, natural resources, and capital suggesting the appropriate strategies for development would have involved production of labor-intensive goods. Among these some are exchanged for imports of capital goods and technology as per the necessity for development. For economic development and modernization India